Adult Language Learners

Adult Language Learners: An Annotated Bibliography

Auerbach, E. R. (1993). Reexamining english only in the ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 27(1), 9-32.

Reexamining English Only in the ESL Classroom is a journal article written by Elsa Roberts Auerbach. In this article she is arguing that adult ELL’s native language is essential to their acquisition and literacy of their L2. She is against having English only ESl classrooms if the teacher does not allow the ELL’s to use their native language. She starts her article by explaining the purpose of it. Towards the beginning of the article she uses a quote from a Latino teenager to illustrate that English only in the classroom is more of a hindrance than a help.

Auerbach refers to the concept of the majority creating things for the majority. She also discusses the history of English-only teaching. She brings forth some shocking realities. For instance, when people were immigrating to the United States during World War I, the children were expected to pledge oaths to language loyalty. She gives an example of one of these oaths. It is an oath that was written by the centre that dehumanizes the peripheries.

She backs her argument against English-only instruction with evidence she gained from research and practice. Most, if not all, of the evidence centered around the idea that a person should be able to use their L1 while they are learning their L2.

This article is extremely informative and makes a person think about their approach to teaching ESL.

Auerbach, E. (1996). Adult ESL/literacy from the community-- to the community : A guidebook for participatory literacy training. Mahwah, N.J.: L. Erlbaum Associates.

Adult ESL/Literacy from the Community to the Community by Elsa Auerbach is a book about a project in which immigrants from the Boston community who knew English were trained to teach ESL to the immigrants of the Boston community. It is a fascinating study because the immigrants who were trained did not all have higher education. It was their lack of a higher education that made them successful ESL teachers because that could identify with their students because they were of the same culture as them. The ESL teachers had also gone through the process of learning the language; thus, the barrier between student and teacher was broken.

The way this book is organized is helpful for research because all of the topics are broken down. She first talks about how the project came about; then she discusses the how and why. It is also an easy read and enjoyable. It comes from a real-life situation, and, in the book, Auerbach refers to similar situations that have happened in the world.

It was a helpful book for my adult ESL learner research because it informed me on how I can be more effective as an adult ESL teacher. It was in accordance of the idea that understanding your learner and where he comes from is essential to being an effective ESL teacher.

Campbell, C., & Kryszewska, H. (1992). Learner-based teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Learner-based Teaching by Colin Campbell and Hanna Kryszewska was written to inform what learner-based teaching is and what it looks like. Campbell and Kryszewska begin the book by explaining what learner-based teaching is. They also discuss the role the teacher plays in this type of teaching. Every type of teaching has advantages and disadvantages. Campbell and Kryszewska address the advantages and disadvantages that learner-based teaching possess.

However, a rather large portion of the book is organized into different sections that model how a teacher can teach “grammar, vocabulary, integrated skills, writing, and translation” and how to prepare for games and exams in a learner- based manner.

This book is useful for a person who is creating a curriculum that is focused on the learners’ needs. It gives different exercises that the students can do. It also shows the level of proficiency the students would need in order to complete the exercises. The teacher is told exactly what she would need to do for the exercise. The book goes step by step for each exercise as well as informs the teacher of approximately how much time should be allotted for the exercise. If someone is starting an ESL program or an ESL class. This is a great book to use as a reference because of all of the detailed exercises for grammar, vocabulary, writing, and translation.

Díaz-Rico, L. T. (2004). Teaching english learners : Strategies and methods. Boston: Pearson A and B.

Teaching English Learners: Strategies and Methods by Lynne Díaz-Rico is a book comprised of different ESL strategies and methods. These method range from Performance-based learning to learning English through one’s service to a community. The beginning of the book defines what an ESL teacher is and what an ELL is. The rest of the book consists of all the ESL teaching methods. These methods can also be used for EFL. Also, all of the methods focus on the ESL student.

This book is a great resource for someone who wants to learn more about different teaching methods for ESL because it contains twelve of them, and each method is explained and expounded upon. Anyone who would like to start an ESL program or ESL class would benefit from this book because at the beginning of each section, Díaz- Rico defines each method. She gives background to each method and basically any information one would need about the methods. Then she discusses how to use the method. It was especially good for me because I was able to look at my TESL-350 reflection journal and put together which strategies and methods would possibly work for the adult ESL learners I had been working with for my TESL-350.

Hayes, E. (1989). Hispanic adults and ESL programs: Barriers to participation. TESOL Quarterly, 23(1), 47-63.

Hispanic Adults and ESL Programs: Barriers to Participation by Elisabeth Hayes is a journal article about a study of the participation of hispanic adults in ESL programs. This study took place because of the observation that not many Hispanic adults are participating in ESL programs.

In this article, Hayes puts into perspective the largeness of the hispanic population. She states statistics of the literacy of the Hispanic population in comparison to the literacy of the rest of the United States. She briefly discusses how this affects America as a whole. She also shares the factors that she found to be the “barriers” to the participation of hispanic adults in ESL programs and explains how she came to those conclusions. There are tables in the article that help to bring the concepts together for the reader. With each factor, she has put the excuses that hispanic adults give for that factor. She later moves into a description or profile of low-literate hispanic adults.

I did not think that I would be able to find an article that focused on hispanic adults in ESL programs, much less a study on their lack of participation in them. This article helped in my research of adult ESL learners, specifically hispanic adults.

Helman, L., Bear, D. R., Templeton, S., Invernizzi, M., & Johnston, F. (2007). Words their way with english learners: Word study for phonics, vocabulary, and spelling (second ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.

Words Their Way with English Learners: Word Study for Phonics, Vocabulary, and Spelling is a practical book for anyone teaching ELL’s how to speak or read English. The book is basically about orthographic development. This is especially helpful because it acts as a mini review of some things that are learned in TESL-220. It breaks down the orthographic development into five parts, but it starts by explaining orthographic development, how to assess it, and how to organize one’s classroom based off of the results of the assessment of it. Then it explains the different stages of orthographic development: the emergent stage, the letter-name alphabetic stage, the word patter stage, the syllables and affixes stage, and the derivational relations stage.

There are many tables and examples of activities to look at and study. They help to make things more understandable, but the book is and easy read. It is great for research on how to help ELL’s with their accents because one can see why it is so difficult for their ELL’s to make that certain sound. It is useful for other research as well because it gives theories to phonics learning, vocabulary learning, and spelling while showing one how they can teach the three to ELL’s.

This book was helpful to me as an ESL teacher, and I think it might be helpful to an Applied Linguistics major because of its focus on orthographic development.

McKay, H., & Tom, A.,. (1999). Teaching adult second language learners. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.

Teaching Adult Second Language Learners by Heather McKay and Abigail Tom is a practical, informational, and helpful book about adult ESL learners. At the beginning of the book, they define what an adult learner is and what they bring to the ESL classroom. It also gives ideas about how to obtain information of the language, background, expectations, learning styles, confidence, motivation, and personal circumstances one’s learners possesses.

The book also discusses how one can create an effective classroom. Then it gives themes for lessons. This has helped me greatly with my TESL-410 class because I am creating a curriculum plan for adult learners. When McKay and Tom discuss each theme, they give different activities one could do with their class. A lot of the themes have at least one activity in them that will tell the teacher something about that student ( background information, language, motivation, learning styles, etc.).

I gained information from this that was helpful to my research because it was practical information such as what young adults think of the older adults and vice versa. The book also gave me difficulties that both young and old adults bring to the table that one should think of when working with an ESL program.

Menard-Warwick, J. (2005). Intergenerational trajectories and sociopolitical context: Latina immigrants in adult ESL. TESOL Quarterly: A Journal for Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages and of Standard English as a Second Dialect, 39(2), 165-185.

Intergenerations Trajectories and Sociopolitical Context: Latina Immigrants in Adult ESL is journal article written by Julia Menard-Warwick. It is an intriguing article about the affect each generation has one the other’s education which is the intergenerational trajectory. Menard-Warwick uses an experience she had in 2002 as a participant-observer classroom volunteer in an ESL program to explain and expound upon her point. She uses two of the Latina women’s stories to illustrate what intergeneration trajectories are. Then she uses their stories to explain the sociopolitical context they are in. These women’s stories are told to introduce the reader to who they are. They are both immigrant women from Central America, and they are touching stories.

I would highly recommend this article to anyone because it contains real people’s stories, and their stories are used to explain the point the article addresses. It is an insightful work into the latino culture. Family is highly valued in that culture, and one sees that when reading this article. It makes sense that family influences one’s education, but Menard-Warwick puts a twist on it because it is not exactly what one would first think. It is a great read for anyone who wants to do ESL. It is also a quick read because it is so enjoyable. A research paper that focuses on teaching Latina women ESL would benefit greatly from it.

Smoke, T. (1998). Adult ESL : Politics, pedagogy, and participation in classroom and community programs. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Adult ESL: Politics, Pedagogy, and Participation in Classroom and Community Programs is a book by Trudy Smoke that is comprised of essays concerning politics, pedagogy, and participation in classroom and community programs written by various intellectuals. It is research friendly because all of the articles are organized by topic (a person will find all of the political articles in one place, all of the pedagogical articles in one place, etc.). The table of contents shows one the essay names, the authors of the essays, and the page numbers in which the essays will be found.

The political section contains anything from the politics of adult ESL literacy to the politics of multiculturalism to gender equality in ESL-based education. The section on pedagogy includes literacy and democracy in an ESL classroom along with pronunciation and writing. Participation is huge when it comes to ESL. It is what aids in the ELL’s acquisition of his L2. This section provides essays concerning some of the aspects of participation in ESL. The essays range from topics of training ESL instructors to how one can get involved in ESL programs.

I found this book to be extremely helpful in my research on adult ESL learning. I could simply look at the essay topics to see if they were relevant to my topic.

Wood, K. (2011). Writing together: Building community through learner stories in adult ESL. TESOL Journal, 2(2), 239-248.

Writing Together: Building Community Through Learner Stories in Adult ESL by Katherine Wood is a journal article that focuses on Learners’ Lives as Curriculum (LLC). It is a fascinating article that addresses the difficulty of adult ESL programs. Wood discusses different factors that play into the ESL programs and the adult ELL’s lives.

Throughout this article, she not only talks about adult ESL, she also talks about students with interrupted formal education (SIFE), family literacy programs, Learners’ Lives as Curriculum (LLC), and Language Experience Approach (LEA). Toward the middle of the article, she reveals herself as one who is familiar with Paolo Freire and his work. She discusses the different approaches to making a LLC. Her style looks very much towards the ELL and what he needs. She asks the questions of “What does my learner need to know now?” and “What is my learner going to be able to take from this class?” She also uses the skills that the learners already have and builds from them.

This is a great read for anyone interested in ESL. It is also a great resource for research on either adult ESL, adult literacy, ESL families, SIFE or LLC and LEA. Wood addresses all of them rather well, and when anyone reads the article, they can see that she cares about the subject.

ELLs and Assessment

Abedi, J. (2002). Measuring instructional quality in accountability systems: Classroom assignments and student achievement. Educational Assessment, 8(3), 231-257.

This article explains research about the performance difference between English Language Learners and English speakers on standardized tests. The data comes from case studies at four different sites from across the United States. The study looks at several different factors that may be at fault for this performance gap, focusing specifically on the influence of language. It shows a clear influence of language differences on performance.

Amrei, A. L., & Berliner, D. C. (2002). An analysis of some unintended and negative consequences of high-stakes testing. Michigan: The Great Lakes Center for Education Research & Practice.

This article is on the long side, but it has a table of contents at the beginning to make it easy to find the information that you are looking for. The background on high-stakes testing is good general information to have. There is a thorough analysis of the impact of testing on each state, which is more relevant to high school than other education levels. The following section,”The Other Unintended Consequences of High-Stakes Test,” provides good, concise information on consequences, particularly for those students who are considered at-risk. Thought the focus of the paper is not on English Language Learners, the information is helpful to have as general knowledge about high-stakes testing, and there is some application specific to ELLs.

McKay, P. (2005). Research into the assessment of school age learners. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 25, 243-263. Retrieved from http://eprints.qut.edu.au/12095/1/12095.pdf

This is a chapter from a longer work, and this specific chapter focuses on assessment in second language and foreign language education. To start with, it addresses the standards and testing movement. The authors take the position that this movement has negative effects for second language learners. The chapter expounds on those negative effects and follows up with recommendations for addressing those negative effects and ways for teachers to assess more effectively. There is also a small section to specifically address young learners.

McNeil, L. (2010). Beyond the products of higher-order questioning: how do teacher and english-language learner perceptions influence practice?. TESOL Quarterly, 2. Retrieved from http://www.tesol-journal.com/PDF/A6V2_TESOL.pdf

This article is more about in class assessment for English Language Learners. It uses a case study to evaluate the use of higher-order questioning for ELLs. The authors define the idea of higher-order questioning and evaluate the hypothesis that it is not used enough for ELLs by observing classes. They also describe the possible effects of not using enough questions of that nature.

Menken, K. (2008). English learners left behind: Standardized testing as language policy. Clevedon; Buffalo: Multilingual Matters Ltd.

This book is not in our library, but I got it easily with an Interlibrary loan. Kate Menken writes about her research on testing and English Language Learners in New York City schools, especially relating to testing. The study focuses exclusively on high school students, and has extensive information about exit exam requirements for high school graduation. The book also gives in-depth information about the rise in drop-out rates and the phenomenon of pushing out for ELLs.

Moya, S. S., & O'Malley, J. M. (1994). A portfolio assessment model for ESL. The Journal of Educational Issues of Language Minority Students, 13, 13-36. Retrieved from http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/files/rcd/BE019739/A_Portfolio_Assessment.pdf

This article is a little dated but it gives some really valuable general information about the use of portfolios as assessment, particularly for the ESL class. The benefits of using portfolios are explained, and a process is outlined for implementation. The authors come to the conclusion that portfolios are not a fad but a part of the future for assessment in second language classrooms.

Odo, D. M. (2010). A review of the literature on ESL literacy assessment. British Columbia Lower Mainland ESL Assessment Consortium. Retrieved from http://www.eslassess.ca/esl/docs/Assessment_Lit_Review_Publication.pdf

Because it is a literature review, this article synthesizes a lot of information that you might find in several different places. The history of the development of language tests at the beginning can be good background knowledge about language testing in general. It also gives basic information about the current use of traditional tests, and a fair critique of a few popular alternative assessment methods. Following sections specifically address both elementary and secondary levels of testing, computer testing, and the societal impact of assessment. Overall an extremely informative and useful article.

Simon, M. (2010). Assessment versus achievement: Winner takes all! Florida Journal of Educational Administration & Policy, 3(2), 73-85.

A case study in Florida public schools analyzes the effects of No Child Left Behind on the school system. Although the study was done in Florida, general applications can be made by the questions that are raised in the research. The beginning of the article contains a useful summary of the requirements of NCLB for schools, and outlines how those requirements play out in Florida schools. A major emphasis is the amount of time that tests take away from instruction. To conclude, the authors provide recommendations of alternative to NCLB.

Wolfe, J., & Gilrane, C. P. (2008). Assessment that supports student learning: One Teacher’s journey TNTESOL Journal, One, 8-19.

This article is useful if you want to look at the ideas of alternative assessment. An ESL teacher shares her own personal experience with using assessment methods in her classroom and their effectiveness. Valuable information is given about keeping anecdotal records, documenting growth, and student reflection. The author discusses how these methods have been helpful in knowing where here students are and improving her instruction.

Wright, W. E., & Choi, D. (2006). The impact of language and high-stakes testing policies on elementary school english language learners in arizona. EDUCATION POLICY ANALYSIS ARCHIVES, 14(13) Retrieved from http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v14n13/

The authors of this study interviewed forty ESL and bilingual teachers in Arizona, which has some of the strictest rules in the country about the education of ELLs. The article explains why this is the case, evaluating Arizona legislature. This study is particularly beneficial for getting teacher perspectives on high-stakes testing. There are several easy to read and use charts showing teacher reactions and feelings about legislation, high-stakes testing, and the results on instruction.

English Language Learners & Learning Disabilities

Barrera, M. (2006). Roles of definitional and assessment models in the identification of new or second language learners of English for special education. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39(2), 142-156.

The purpose of this study is to explore a “chaotic” theoretical framework for identifying students with learning disabilities. The article begins by framing the complex issue of definitions and inadequate practices in regards to English language learners. Barrera cites significant linguistic theorists such as Cummins, Krashen, Garcia, and Ortiz, and has conducted multiple research initiatives regarding assessment, learning disabilities, and English language learners. This article provides helpful insight into the definitional issues and the importance of correct diagnosis in referring students for special education services.

Case, R. E., & Shanon S. Taylor. (2005). Language difference or learning disability? Answers from a linguistic perspective. The Clearing House, 78(3), pp. 127-130.

This short yet concise article provides an overview on the issue of language learning and learning disabilities. Case and Taylor quickly explore several shared symptoms between language struggles and actual learning disabilities, such as pronunciation, syntax, and semantics. The article ends by examining classroom environmental factors that are conducive to second language acquisition. This source gives a wide overview of the issue, as well as well-informed pedagogical responses that are reflective of the TESL program.

Cloud, N. (1994) Special education needs of second language learners. In F. Genesee (Ed.), Educating Second Language Children (pp. 246-247). New York: Cambridge University Press.

The entire text edited by Genesee is a rich collection of resources and insights about ESL. In chapter 10, Cloud specifically addresses special education needs of ESL students by examining a framework of second language acquisition by Spolsky, and a look at the diagnostic process. She also provides another framework for addressing effective instructional planning in the classroom and on a programmatic level. Her thorough approach to this topic guides the reader through contributing aspects of language learning and learning difficulties that ought to be considered, such as present knowledge, ability, motivation, and opportunity. She cites various linguistic theorists that validate her work. In turn, her work proves learners with a reflective and reliable source on the topic of ELLs and special education.

Huang, J., Clarke, K., Milczarski, E., & Raby, C. (2011). The assessment of English language learners with learning disabilities: Issues, concerns, and implications. Education, 131(4), 732-739.

This recent article provides an overview of assessment issues, concerns, and implications for English language learners with learning disabilities. Huang examines the major issues concerning ELLs with learning disabilities, the disadvantage that students face, and the referral process. The concerns include educators’ lack of knowledge in addressing the issues, the necessity for correct identification and early identification for long-term success, and validity and fairness of assessment for these unique learners. The implications include the need for laws and regulations pertaining to these students’ need, the growing need for further research and professional development, appropriate assessment, and the support of family in the learning process. Huang provides a host of issues and concerns to be further explored, and carefully lays out what ought to be addressed for the rectification of this complex issue.

Kavale, K. A., & Forness, S. R. (2000). What definitions of learning disability say and don't say. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33(3), 239.

This article examines the difficulties of providing meaningful and significant definitions of learning disabilities. The authors carefully follow the progression of definitions, all the while providing analysis’ and critiques. After determining the significant issue of defining the definition of learning disabilities, Kavale and Forness seek to resolve the problem. The articles serve as an excellent critical analysis of definitions and what definitions actually mean. It’s a long and very thorough article, providing much depth on this very specific issue of definitions regarding learning disabilities.

Klingner, J. K., Artiles, A. J., & Barletta, L. M. (2006). English language learners who struggle with reading: Language acquisition or LD? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39(2), 108-128.

This study reviews ELLs with learning disabilities through the examination of literacy related means. The authors sought to differentiate between ELLs who struggle to acquire literacy because of limited English proficiency and ELLs who struggle because of a learning disability. In their conclusion they state the necessity for more research on the needs of underachieving ELLs who do not have a learning disability but still struggle with literacy acquisition, as well as a host of other future research needs. Throughout the study, the authors provide a well-rounded context of knowledge concerning the issue of literacy struggle for ELLs with potential learning disabilities. This article is helpful for providing insight to future research needs and issues.

Kushner, M. I. (2008). Preparing highly qualified teachers for English language learners with disabilities and at risk of disabilities. Multiple Voices for Ethnically Diverse Exceptional Learners, 11(1), 42-57.

Kushner explores the little information on teacher qualification for ELLs who have learning disabilities and are at risk for special education referrals. This article then discusses the challenges and present need for general education program personnel to have higher standards of professional practice. Kushner reports that schools are under pressure to close the achievement gap between subgroups and mainstream peers, and yet little information is provided about the expectations for those educating the subgroup of ELLs. This article would be a helpful resource for research on systemic expectations and professional development.

Paradis, J. (2005). Grammatical morphology in children learning English as a second language: Implications of similarities with specific language impairment. Language, Speech & Hearing Services in Schools, 36(3), 172-187.

Paradis explores grammatical morphology in children learning English as a second language and the implications of similarities with Specific Language Impairment (SLI). This source is rich with citations of other linguistic theorists such as Cummins, Genesee, and Ortiz, providing a highly complicated study that was conducted to determine whether typically developing ELLs have shared similarities of English spoken by monolingual children with SLI. The study provides insight about ELLS with language disorders and language struggles. Furthermore, the study evaluates the use of standardized assessment for nonnative English speakers as a negative practice.

Salend, S. J., & Salinas, A. G. (2003). Language differences or learning difficulties. Teaching Exceptional Children, 35(4), 36-43.

The exploration of multidisciplinary teams in determining language differences or learning difficulties is a highly relevant topic of consideration. The authors provide recommendations for teams seeking to provide ELLs with potential learning disabilities with appropriate services. Their proposal of multidisciplinary approaches to the issue also includes recommendations for various language acquisition factors and aspects, as well as a host of questions that ought to be considered in the identification and referral process for special education.

Wagner, R. K., Francis, D. J., & Morris, R. D. (2005). Identifying English language learners with learning disabilities: Key challenges and possible approaches. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice (Blackwell Publishing Limited), 20(1), 6-15. doi:10. 1111/j. 1540-5826. 2005. 00115. x.

Wagner et al. explores the challenges of identifying and approaching English language learners with learning disabilities. Identification, referral for special education process, and assessment are areas of major concern and need for further research and exploration. The authors determine the consequences and implications of these challenges, and also provide developing comparable assessment. This highly academic study provides a thorough understanding of the issues and consequences, and need for further research and improvements in the areas of identification, referrals, and assessment of ELLs with learning disabilities.

Critical Literacy – Education for Social Justice

This bibliography is divided into two sections - first, there is an introduction to the broader philosophy of critical pedagogy and the idea of education for social justice. Then, the bibliography moves to looking specifically at sources related to the framework of critical literacy.

McLaren, P. (1989). Life in schools: An introduction to critical pedagogy in the foundations of education. New York: Longman.

Although published in 1989, this work by McLaren gives a readily accessible look at critical pedagogy. Divided into two primary parts, Life in Schools explores the theoretical background of critical pedagogy and then provides a journal-style account of his time as an inner-city teacher working with the philosophy. The book also includes a helpful chapter summarizing the ideas of great critical educators - Kozol, Freire, Dewey, Apple, and Giroux. The brevity, clear chapter divisions, and directed focus make it a great start for the exploration of critical pedagogy in the American public school system. Once again, however, it is important to note that the work was published nearly 13 years ago, so the statistics and cultural information is quite dated.

Macedo, D. P., & Bartolomé, L. I. (1999). Dancing with bigotry: Beyond the politics of tolerance. New York: St. Martin's Press.

This book is a scathing look at the injustices and hypocrisy within the American school system. It speaks against “multicultural” education as paternalistic and lays forth ideas for reform. It is extremely well written and does not waste any of its 170 small pages. Encouragingly, many of the ideas presented in the TESL program make an appearance within the pages - educating the "whole child" and Cummins, avoiding the banking approach, the problems of standards-driven curriculum, Gee's discourse theory, social class mobility, language contextualization, etc. However, the ideas are presented in a different light and in different contexts that help deepen and strengthen ownership of the concepts. Furthermore, the authors include interviews with Freire and Giroux. Even if one is not interested in critical theory, this book is a well-articulated look at one of the significant problems in American education.

Morgan, B., & Vandrick, S. (2009). Imagining a Peace Curriculum: What Second-Language Education Brings to the Table. Peace & Change. 34(4), 510+. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.uu.edu.

With more updated facts and figures, this article looks at the great potential of ELLs and the benefits they bring to their schools. Instead of framing these students as a burden on the school, Morgan and Vandrick explore the many societal benefits of cultural diversity within the schools. They discuss curricular ideas and the value of creating opportunities in class to discuss critically current issues of justice and the pursuit of peace. The authors' perspective of how peace and justice manifests and how they should be pursued are presented as obvious facts and incontestable, which sometimes seems problematic to me. However, it is an encouraging (while sobering) look at what it means to be an ESL teacher.

Howard, G. R. (2006). We can't teach what we don't know: White teachers, multiracial schools. New York: Teachers College Press.

An immediately applicable book for most TESL majors, this book explores the increasing multicultural/multiracial school systems and the implications for teachers. Geared toward university education majors, Howard provides a quick introduction to race theory and, in particular, whiteness theory. He creates well-articulated arguments for some of the major problems/injustices in modern systemic education and a new "transformationalist" pedagogy. Even if sometimes a bit wordy, the book contains helpful visuals and diagrams to simplify complex concepts. It also touches on the implications and problems of the education legislation in 2006 and before (some of which is still quite relevant for today).

hooks, b. (2000). Where we stand: Class matters. New York: Routledge.

Like Freire and Giroux, bell hooks (lowercase spelling intentional) is a prominent voice in the battle for social justice in the classroom. Critical literacy looks at class, and this book by hooks gives an unflinching looking at the nature of social classes and her related personal narrative. I thoroughly enjoyed reading a female perspective on critical education reform--hooks is a deeply engaging writer. Her narrative style allows for personal interpretation and application without prescriptions. This does not mean her message is weak - she passionately speaks for social justice within the American school system and broader society. I found this book particularly fascinating because of its tie-in to Christian values through hook's discussion of her faith-driven upbringing. She calls for Christians to move past greed and work for social change and solidarity with the poor.

For further reading: hooks, b. (1994). Teaching to transgress: Education as the practice of freedom. New York: Routledge.

Bruner, J. (1996). The culture of education. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Adding a sense of scientific validity, Bruner explores education from the perspective of the cognitive/psychological aspects. He is the researcher who published the theory of scaffolding (which is often talked about in education classes) and wrote about the nature of constructivism. Also a strong writer, Bruner adds a helpful additional perspective to the discussion -- pushing the research towards an even more interdisciplinary approach. His writing is extremely dense, but also very quotable. For example, “I suspect that part of the difficulty [in the education system] was introduced by wrongly focused theories of learning that lost sight of the forest of skilled competence for the trees of perfected performances” (p. 113). Bruner is a useful resource for nearly any paper looking at critical pedagogy/literacy.

Also see: Bruner, J. (1986). Actual minds, possible worlds. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Kellner, D., & Kim, G. (January 01, 2010). YouTube, critical pedagogy, and media activism. Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies, 32(1), 3-36.

The power of the media in students’ lives is a central concern for many educators. This article connects the ideas of critical literacy to the rise of social media. I think the argument for media literacy may be the central selling point of critical literacy for many mainstream teachers. As technology becomes an inevitable part of teaching it is vital to look critically at its effect on literacy education. Published in 2010, this is a recent look at the nature of critical pedagogy today. It focuses on creating societal change and cultural transformation with the help of innovative education practices.

Robbins, C. G. (2009). Searching for politics with Henry Giroux: Through cultural studies to public pedagogy and the “Terror of neoliberalism”. Review of Education, Pedagogy & Cultural Studies, 31(5), 428-478. doi:10.1080/10714410903344361

Robbins looks at the ideas of Giroux from the context of 2009 and makes an argument for the continued relevancy of critical pedagogy. He speaks out in agreement with Giroux's critique of the "market-driven managerialism" (428) which shapes modern education practices. The majority of the article explores Giroux's view of politics and economics. For the reader interested in those aspects of critical theory, this 50-page article provides a thorough summary. The article, however, does not claim to present more than one viewpoint and is very focused on the collected works of Giroux and how they relate to his critique of "neoliberalism."

Robinson, Ken. (May 2010). Bring on the learning revolution. Retrieved from

http://www.ted.com/themes/how_we_learn.html

TED is a fantastic online resource for quick re-inspiration to continue the pursuit of teaching as a profession. A series of talks by various thinkers and innovators, TED conference videos are short and thought provoking. The format of the talks does not lend itself well to direct use in papers; yet, the featured TED talks related to education encourage the listener to think outside the box. Critical pedagogy/literacy advocates challenging the status quo as part of the solution to the problems of systemic education. Often it is easy to get trapped in one way of perceiving the problem, TED talks challenge listeners to consider a new perspective. For example, in his 2010 talk, Sir Ken Robinson explains, "So I think we have to change metaphors. We have to go from what is essentially an industrial model of education, a manufacturing model, which is based on linearity and conformity and batching people. We have to move to a model that is based more on principles of agriculture. We have to recognize that human flourishing is not a mechanical process; it's an organic process."

For an illustrated version of a Sir Ken Robinson talk: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zDZFcDGpL4U.

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Shor, I., & Pari, C. (1999). Critical literacy in action: Writing words, changing worlds. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook Publishers.

With an excellent introduction that lays out the theory of critical literacy concisely without oversimplifying, Shor and Pari's book is a wonderful resource for building a foundation to understand critical literacy. Essential terms are defined, central thinkers are weaved throughout the text, and practical case studies encourage educators to lay aside the complaint that critical theory is totally impractical and inaccessible. A collection of many different authors, some are dated and others are not particularly engaging writers. However, editorial abstracts at the beginning of each chapter assist in selecting the most relevant chapters to read. Overall, the anecdotal nature of the test is quite helpful in moving the critical literacy past the theoretical.

Lankshear, C., & McLaren, P. (1993). Critical literacy: politics, praxis, and the postmodern. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Critical literacy is tied to postmodernist thought, which is a major hang-up for some people. Lankshear and McLaren's book devotes an entire section to discussing the postmodern aspects of the framework and its implications. They conclude that unfettered postmodernism is problematic and dangerous. They call for care, balance, and thought to avoid losing all sense of truth. Another very quotable work, they write, "[Through education] humans are able to rise above arbitrariness, irrelevance, prejudice, distortion, and falsehood....[Education] involves imbibing a range of attitudes such as concern for truth, consistency, relevance, impartiality, clarity, and honesty in appraisal and interpretation of evidence, and avoiding contradiction in thought and action" (p. 22). They are deeply passionate about the power of education and the problems within the current system. However, they elevate education to a sort of religion, which is dangerous for the Christian reader (and others).

Gallego, M. A., & Hollingsworth, S. (2000). What counts as literacy?: Challenging the school standard. New York: Teachers College Press.

A source that I have referenced more than any other, Gallego and Hollingsworth's work is a brief but comprehensive exploration of the complexity of literacy education. They immediately move the literacy discussion beyond just “the ability to read and write.” It fills in the gaps that the short (and more recent) journal articles do not have enough time to fill. Although the title does not immediately show a link to critical literacy, the majority of the book links to the critical literacy framework, particularly the writings and practices of Paulo Freire. Additionally, this book contains a solid definition of the idea of "multiple literacies" - a text can be more than words on a book page.

Cervetti, G., Pardales, M.J., & Damico, J.S. (2001). A tale of differences: Comparing the traditions, perspectives, and educational goals of critical reading and critical literacy. Reading Online, 4(9). Retrieved from http://www.readingonline.org/articles/art_index.asp?HREF=cervetti

Newcomers to the vocabulary of critical theory often confuse critical reading with critical literacy. They are quite different. Cervetti, Pardales, and Damico outline the central differences and even provide a helpful quick reference chart to compare the two. Their key points include critical reading's concern with authorial intent and critical literacy's greater concern with social justice and positive change (praxis). They speak against the liberal-humanist roots of critical reading as not enough--critical thought must also include consideration of the ideological level of "texts."

Flint, A.S., Lewison, M., & Sluys, K.V. (2002). Taking on critical literacy: The journey of newcomers and novices. Language Arts. 79(5), 382-392. Retrieved from http://eeando.unl.edu/cehs/phillips921b/module4/pdf/TakingOnCritical.pdf

Flint, Lewison, and Sluys focus on the introduction of teachers to the critical literacy framework, particularly elementary school teachers. For this reason, their article is quite helpful as a jumping off point for exploring critical literacy for children. The authors also include a helpful chart of suggested children's books to use in the classroom to begin discussions of social justice issues. At 10 pages, it is a concise and quick introduction to critical literacy and its application in the American classroom.

The Reading Teacher is also a helpful journal if interested in the literacy/application aspect of critical theory.

Jones, S. (2006). Lessons from Dorothy Allison: Teacher education, social class and critical literacy. Changing English: Studies in Culture & Education, 13(3), 293-305. doi:10.1080/13586840600971802

Jones' article is helpful if interested in the field of teacher education. A professor at Columbia University in NY, Jones combines "autobiography and case study" (p. 293) to look at one of her graduate education students: a middle-class, white, female teacher, who is seeking to understand and navigate the ideas of critical literacy. It shows the potential of Freire’s theories beyond their use by minorities and the need for this kind of teacher education among the majority. The style and intentions often parallel that of Mike Rose. Her bibliography is also helpful. However, Jones' is extremely passionate about the topic, which, unfortunately, sometimes dissolves into what reads like a rant.

Adult ESL Learners

Annotated Bibliography

Baer, John, et al. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences. (2009). Basic reading skills and the literacy of America's least literate adults Washington, DC. Retrieved from .

After conducting the National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NAAL) with over 19,000 American adults, the U.S. Department of Education published this statistical analysis of America’s adult literacy in 2009, with the last survey of its kind last published in 1992. The amount of time that passed between the two surveys says a lot about where literacy lies on the American government’s priorities list. The study gave an initial background questionnaire, followed by some core literacy tasks comprised of seven questions which, if not answered correctly, led to a second round of more intense testing.

The assessment participants would be given either the Main Literacy Assessment or the Adult Literacy Supplemental Assessment (ALSA), depending on their scores in the initial phases of assessment. Then all participants were given the Fluency Addition to NAAL (FAN), which measured basic reading skills. There were four levels in which participants could score: Below Basic, Basic, Intermediate, Proficient. Almost half of all adults that scored Below Basic could only read fewer than 60 words per minute. That is only the highlighted amount of words on this page. The participants who scored Proficient could read 106 or more words per minute. It was also interesting that the results were interpreted through the divisions of “English, Spanish, and Other Languages”. I thought it was unfair to not even count other groups’ languages as separate categories – the conductors of the assessment just lumped all other languages besides Spanish and English together.

Bakhari, Maqsud Alam, et al. (2010). Evaluation of adult literacy programs in psychological perspectives/evaluation des programmes d'alphabetisation des adultes en perspectives psychologiques. Canadian Social Science, 6(5), Retrieved from .

Bokhari, et al, problematize adult literacy programs and then present a case study they conducted in an adult literacy program environment to prove their theories. The researchers emphasize the necessary consideration of adult educational psychology and how it differs from child psychology in a school environment. Adult learners should be treated differently than children in a learning environment, especially on the level of power distance and authority. In their case study, researchers found that the adult learners felt that their teachers thought they were superior to their students – which the teachers confirmed as true.

There was also an emphasis on using curriculum material that is relevant to the learners’ lives – which should be a rule in every learning environment. If the curriculum is irrelevant to the learner, than the learner’s motivation to learn dramatically decreases. Most learners in the study wanted to learn English to develop skills that would help them get a well-paying job, but they were not using material that would help them do that at all. The curriculum and teaching must be meaningful to the students. Other issues involved the irregularity of the same teacher and teachers’ rude behavior toward students. There have been studies that show if you have the same teacher – and there is an amicable teacher-student relationship – for a longer period of time, it significantly helps the student to learn.

Bleakley, Hoyt & Aimee Chin. (2004). Language skills and earnings: evidence from childhood immigrants. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 86(2), Retrieved from .

Bleakley and Chin conducted a statistical analysis on the effects that age of arrival has on the correlation between language skills and earnings. In accordance with individual immigrants accounted for in a 1990 U.S. Census, there was a positive effect English language skills had on wages. Their findings suggest that timing of migration and its effect on English language skills are incredibly important to a variety of different outcomes – and they suggest that policy makers should be mindful of this. English language skills increase to higher levels through longer years of schooling, and Bleakley and Chin suggest that adult English classes may be inadequate in assisting immigrant wages to converge with those of natives. They also suggest that programs aimed at middle and high school students would be more beneficial and effective.

For my research, I thought a study involving the correlation between English language skills and earnings would be relevant since I am tutoring immigrant adults in English. I was, however, surprised that the researchers of this study suggested that it may be better to focus on middle and high school students’ English language classes to better help even out the wage difference between immigrant and native workers. It sounds as if the researchers are implying that supplying efforts toward teaching adult immigrants English is a waste of time because they are too old to learn anything. I know the children are more likely to pick up a new language quicker than adults, but that does not mean that people stop trying to teach those adults altogether.

Condelli, Larry, et al. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Educational Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Educational Sciences. (2010). The impact of a reading intervention for low-literate adult ESL learners. Washington, DC: Retrieved from .

The U.S. Department of Education presents a study of the adult literacy in America, involving an intervention that conducted a study on the basal reader Sam and Pat, Volume I for adult ESL learners. In accordance with the 2008 program year statistics from the U.S. Department of Education, the executive summary states that 44% of the 2.4 million students attending the government funded adult education program in the U.S. were ESL students. Of these ESL students, about 185,000 were at the lowest “beginning literacy” ESL level. The executive summary acknowledges and names other home languages that are spoken in the States other than English and Spanish, which I was glad to read. It is also acknowledged that there is “little rigorous research that identifies effective instruction” for adult ESL learners.

The definition of a systematic approach to literacy development for adult ESL learners included the following items: “(1) a comprehensive instructional scope that includes direct instruction in phonics, fluency, vocabulary development and reading comprehension, (2) a strategic instruction sequence, (3) a consistent instructional format, (4) easy-to-follow lesson plans, and (5) strategies for differentiated instruction” (p. vi). This is a good list to follow, but I think that it is very general, as well as very similar to what a teacher would want to do in any classroom. There should be more studies conducted that address the specific needs of adult ESL classrooms/programs.

Hanson, F., Lomax, R., & Perlman, R. (1984). A structural equation model of second language acquisition for adult learners. The Journal of Experimental Education, 53(1), 29-39. .

Although this article from The Journal of Experimental Education is older than most of these other articles, it is significant because it marks the beginning of an evolving curriculum for adult learners in ESL programs. The article reports a study done in an adult ESL classroom where researchers evaluate a model of second language acquisitions for adult ESL learners. In their study, the researchers consider these variables: sociocultural background, cognitive ability (in the first language), functional language proficiency, cognitive language proficiency, attitudes, motivation, and instructional approach. The results of the study show that an integrative approach toward second language instruction was more effective than a strictly behaviorist approach.

The fact that an integrative approach was more effective further illustrates that adult ESL learners are not empty vessels waiting for a teacher to deposit information into them – adult ESL learners are people who should be treated as whole learners. Additionally, adult students are evaluated by their cognitive abilities in their first language, which is an aspect of students that is often overlooked. If a student does not have a linguistic foundation laid in their first language, that completely changes the game when they need to learn a second language.

Judkins, David, et al. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Educational Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Educational Sciences. (2008). A study of classroom literacy interventions and outcomes in Even Start. Washington, DC: Retrieved from .

This U.S. Department of Education publication is about the Even Start Family Literacy Program, which was established in 1989 “to help break the cycle of poverty and illiteracy for low-income families, by improving the literacy skills of parents and their young children” (p. iii). Even Start offers four different types of programs: Early Childhood Education, Parenting Education, Parent-Child Literacy Activities, Adult Education.

There were two previous studies of the Even Start Program that showed no better literacy outcomes in parents and children who participated in Even Start than those in a randomly assigned control group that did not go to Even Start. However, in the recent 2008 study, there was significant improvement in the following: support for print knowledge and literacy resources in the classroom, the amount of parenting education time spent on child literacy, parent interactive reading skill and parent responsiveness to their child, and child social competence. From having no significant impact on its participants, to this list of results named, I would say that Even Start has begun to have a significant impact on its learners. Not only is the impact significant, but is also positive in that it takes a different approach toward adult ESL instruction than almost all other programs that I have seen in my research so far. It involves the whole family and caters to the needs of the parents, as well as the children. By having the parents become involved in their children’s literacy, it spurns knowledge that will hopefully end the cycle of poverty in low-literacy families in America.

Kahn, Lawrence M. (2004). Immigration, skills and the labor market: international evidence. Journal of Population Economics, 17(3), Retrieved from .

This article, by Lawrence M. Kahn, uses the 1994-1998 International Adult Literacy Survey to compare cognitive skills and immigrant employment in four different countries: Canada, New Zealand, Switzerland, and the U.S. Immigrants had lower cognitive test scores than natives in each of the four countries – the largest gap in the U.S. and smaller gaps in New Zealand and Canada. Male immigrants in the U.S. were as likely to work as natives, and in other countries, the male immigrants were less likely to be working. As for female immigrants, they were less likely to be employed in each country than the natives, with a particularly large gap in the U.S.

Kahn states that “raising skill standards for immigrants in the U.S. would have the likely effect of raising the relative supply of skilled labor and thus would also likely reduce wage inequality generally, although the magnitude of these effects is uncertain” (p. 527). Raising skill standards would probably bring in more skilled labor, BUT that does not necessarily mean the immigrant skilled workers would have a pay raise. Receiving immigrants with more skills does not necessarily mean less prejudice or racism against those immigrants. Also, raising the skill standards for immigrants in the U.S. means that unskilled refugees will have an even greater disadvantage, creating an even bigger gap between the obscenely rich and the obscenely poor in America. And what kind of skills are they looking for exactly? They have pharmacists, accountants, and social workers coming to the U.S. from other countries, but their educations are valued at zero because they do not speak fluent English.

Keenan, Cheryl. U.S. Department of Education, Office of Vocational and Adult Education. (2009). Statement by Cheryl Keenan before the house education and labor subcommittee on higher education, lifelong learning, and competitiveness. Retrieved from .

Cheryl Keenan is the Director of Adult Education and Literacy at the U.S. Department of Education. She gave this statement in 2009 to address the issues involved in adult literacy education, including lack of funding. She emphasizes the large role that funding adult literacy programs could play in the economic recovery of America. Keenan also includes that increasing adult education will not only help adults increase their literacy skills in English, but also will help them transition to post-secondary education and retain jobs that will pay enough to support a family.

Keenan also emphasizes that if immigration rates remain at their consistent growth, by 2015, half of the American population will be composed of immigrants. After stating this point, she describes how adult immigrants need education and English skills not just for keeping a job, but for participating in civic events that are essential to life in the United States’ democracy. Keenan’s statement is significant to my research because of the statistics she presents about adult literacy programs and the benefits she presents for providing more funding for adult education.

Menard-Warwick, J. (2005). Intergenerational trajectories and sociopolitical context: Latina immigrants in adult esl. TESOL Quarterly, 39(2), 165-185. Retrieved from .

Menard-Warwick conducted this ethnographic study in 2002, in which she contrasts the lives of two Central American immigrant women in a family literacy program in the San Francisco Bay area. From what she gathered of life-history interviews and classroom observations, the author argues that these learners’ second language and literacy development can only be understood within the larger sociopolitical context over time. She draws on the participants’ life-history narratives to position their experiences of studying the English language within the greater sociohistorical landscape of immigration in California and the intergenerational educational backgrounds in their families.

Significantly, these narratives discuss participants’ perspectives on how language learning opportunities are mediated by factors such as parents’ messages about education, participants’ previous experiences of schooling, America’s immigration procedures, economic downturn in the U.S., and availability of bilingual education for children. The author concludes by arguing that to meet the incredibly diverse needs and goals of these learners within their classrooms, ESL educators (in and out of the American school system) need to integrate specific sociocontextual issues that these adult ESL learners are confronted with in their everyday lives – making the curriculum relevant to the learner creates meaning and encourages life-long learning.

Metz, Steve. (2010). Literacy 2010 (and beyond). The Science Teacher, 77(1), Retrieved from .

Metz’s article focuses on what the definition of literacy is, while arguing that the current definition may be inaccurate. In the time of the Civil War, Metz emphasizes that a literate person was someone who could sign his or her name. He includes that, in a statement made in 2008, the United Nations’ provided this definition of a literate person: “someone who can ‘read and write, with understanding, a short, simple statement related to his or her daily life’”. In 2003, 27-30 million adults in America had below the basic literacy skills and, what’s more, 46 million adults scored below basic in another “quantitative literacy” assessment.

Metz continues to say that the skills to read and write “should be a baseline expectation for all”. I agree with him in his statement that competently reading and writing is only the beginning of real literacy. A person must continue on to complexify and critically analyze what they read and be able to write out those thoughts. In addition, there are multiple literacies in our world today that people need to be competent in – qualitative, quantitative, scientific, media, technological. The American population has come a long way from considering literacy as the ability of a person to write his or her name – but the current definition from the U.N. in 2008 seems to be outdated as well. Literacy has evolved into something much more than just being able to read and write a sentence about personal life.

Perry, K. (2009). Genres, contexts, and literacy practices: Literacy brokering among sudanese refugee families.Reading Research Quarterly, 44(3), 256-276. Retrieved from .

Perry conducted an ethnographic study to examine “literacy brokering” among a group of Sudanese refugee families in Michigan. Literacy brokering occurs when individuals seek out informal assistance with “unfamiliar texts and literacy practices.” Data collection in this study included participant observation, semi-formal interviews, and the collection of artifacts over a period of 18 months. Three different Southern Sudanese refugee families participated in this study. Current notions of the brokering were challenged, showing that brokering was not merely a matter of translation and that the issues of different genres were also significant.

Many people acted as brokers for the refugees in the study, including the children of the adults in the families – these children were just learning English literacy themselves. For the children, literacy brokering allowed the children to help their parents while also gaining literacy knowledge themselves. This study is significant because it observes how adults outside of an adult ESL program try to cope in their new U.S. context. They need to learn the English language, but do not have the means or access to take an adult ESL course – so, they begin literacy brokering. It is an interesting take on adult immigrants outside of the education system context.

Scales, J., Wennerstrom, A., Richard, D., & Wu, S. (2006). Language learners' perceptions of accent.TESOL Quarterly, 40(4), 725-738. Retrieved from .

Scales et al. conducted a study that analyzed the perceptions of different accents among a group of 37 English language learners and 10 American undergraduate students. Each participant listened to a one-minute passage read by four different speakers with different accents of English: 1) General American, 2) British English, 3) Chinese English, and 4) Mexican English. Participants attempted to identify each accent and stated their preferences and opinions about each of the accents. Each participant also provided their background information and included their reasons for studying English and their goals of pronunciation. In addition, 11 participants were interviewed individually about the different accents they heard. More than half (62%) of the learners stated that their goal was to sound like a native English speaker, however, only 29% were able to correctly identify the American accent!

Interestingly enough, no strong correlations were found between the ability to identify the different accents and the amount of time spent learning English or being in America. However, an almost perfect correlation was found between the accent that was voted the easiest to understand and the accent that participants preferred over the rest. The lack of consistency in accent identification may mirror an idealized notion of what the native accent aspired to actually sounds like. The findings in this study and the immense priority put on listening comprehension imply that there is a need for a more comprehensive consideration of accent in ESL programs.

Stevens, G. (1999). Age at immigration and second language proficiency among foreign-born adults. Language in Society, 28(4), 555-578. Retrieved from .

Stevens suggests that sociologists typically assume that the acquisition of English as a second language for immigrants follows the motivations and opportunities to actually become proficient in English. However, many linguists argue that second language acquisition could possibly be governed by constraints of maturation, which could be biological and are tied to the age at onset of learning a language. The author uses the U.S. census data to analyze the relationship between the age at onset of second language learning and the levels of English skill and proficiency among adults born outside of the U.S. The conclusion is that proficiency in an L2 among adults is strongly correlated to the age at immigration. Part of the correlation could be attributed to social and demographic aspects tied to age at entry into the new country, as well as constraints of maturation.

Stevens research is significant because it indirectly reports that the way adults and children learn is completely different because of age of entry into the country or socioeconomic reasons. This observation is critical to understanding adult ESL learners in a classroom setting. Adult brains learn differently than children brains – therefore, they need to have a different curriculum that focuses on things that are meaningful to them in their learning.

United States Government Accountability Office. (2009). English Language Learning: Diverse Federal State Efforts to Support Adult English Language Learning Could Benefit from More Coordination. Report to the Ranking Member, Subcommittee on Children and Families, Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions, U.S. Senate. Retrieved from .

The U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) created this document to show the benefits of coordination between different government departments to adult English language learning. The GAO suggests that more coordinated information sharing across different types of adult education programs would have multiple benefits. In particular, the GAO states that coordinated information sharing might help agencies better appraise the service demand and find better ways to give those services.

In addition, the GAO states that information sharing between different adult literacy programs might help identify the inadequacies in agency operations, which could lead to making improvements that could reduce program costs and increase the number of people being served. This sharing of information could also bring improvement in the quality of services by better understanding more effective ways to deliver services. In the GAO’s conclusions on this matter, they suggest that the Secretary of Education work with the Department of Health and Human Services and the Department of Labor, in addition to other agencies, to develop a synchronized approach for regularly and methodically sharing information that can help on the federal, state, and local levels in attaining efficient service provision.

Skinner, Curtis, et al. (2010). English language proficiency, family economic security, and child development. National Center for Children in Poverty, Mailman School of Public Health, Colombia University, New York, New York. Retrieved from .

One of the first things this publication points out is that since 1980, the amount of U.S. inhabitants who speak a language other than English in the home has more than doubled. This is an incredibly significant statistic to the American education system, as well as the government. Along with the increase of other languages, there has been an increase in the number of residents with low English proficiency. The authors also point out that there is a strong correlation between low English proficiency and poor healthcare choices – implying that the reason parents with low English proficiency choose not to take their children to the doctor is out of embarrassment or judgment. English proficiency is significantly related to family economic security and the well-being of children. The authors also include that “English language profiency among parents is an important economic asset that is associated with increased workforce participation, significantly higher earnings, and economic mobility” (p. 6).

There has also been a lag in public funding for English language education which may contribute to the lack of service capacity for different ESL programs and institutions. A case study example on New York is provided to demonstrate their findings related to ESL programs and those people who need them. In their recommendations, the authors list a few things that need to be addressed. First, they suggest that there should better coordinated efforts and information-sharing between federal agencies, such as the Departments of Labor, Health and Human Services, and Education. Second, they basically state that so much good has come from the ESL programs and legislation instituted in schools for children, now it is time to do the same kind of thing for adults. Third, they suggest that if bilingual interpreters were in more healthcare facilities and if there were more culturally and linguistically competent facilities to go to, then there would be more: “improved adherence to medical regimens, reduced emergency care visits, and increased physician office visits among patients with limited English language proficiency” (p. 9).